Contents

History

At the beginning of recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 10th century BC. The city of Carthage was founded in the 8th century B.C. by settlers from Tyre, now in modern day Lebanon. Legend says that Queen Dido founded the city, as retold in the Roman Epic Aeneid. The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from the Phoenicians and Canaanites.

After a series of wars with the Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean. The people of Carthage worshipped a pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit. Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet which was altered in Roman times.

Though the Romans referred to the new empire growing in the city of Carthage as Punic or Phoenician the empire built around Carthage was an independent political entity from the other Phoenician settlements in the Western Mediterranean.

A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of the Roman Empire. Carthage was eventually conquered by Rome in the 2nd century BC, a turning point which led to ancient Mediterranean civilization having been influenced mainly by European instead of African cultures. After the Roman conquest, the region became one of the granaries of Rome. It was conquered by the Vandals in the 5th century AD and reconquered by the commander Belisarius in the 6th century during the rule of Byzantine emperor Justinian.

In the 7th century the region was conquered by Arab Muslims, who founded the city of Kairouan. Successive Muslim dynasties ruled, interrupted by Berber rebellions. The reigns of the Aghlabids (9th century) and of the Zirids (from 972), Berber followers of the Fatimids, were especially prosperous. When the Zirids angered the Fatimids in Cairo (1050), the latter sent in the Banu Hilal tribe to ravage Tunisia.

The coasts were held briefly by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th century. In 1159, Tunisia was conquered by the Almohad caliphs. They were succeeded by the Berber Hafsids (c.1230 - 1574), under whom Tunisia prospered. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold (see: Barbary States). In the last years of the Hafsids, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957.

French imperialism

In the mid-1800s, Tunisia's government under the rule of the Bey severely compromised its legitimacy by making several controversial financial decisions that led to its downfall. France began plans to take control of Tunisia when the Bey first borrowed large sums of money in an attempt to Westernize. This failing state facilitated the Algerian raids that occurred thereafter. The weakened Bey was powerless against these raids and unable to resist European colonization.

In 1878, a secret deal was made between the United Kingdom and France that decided the fate of the African country. Provided that the French accepted British control of Cyprus, recently given to the United Kingdom, the British would in turn accept French control of Tunisia. This satisfied the French and led to their assumption of control in 1880. Tunisia was formally made a French protectorate on May 12, 1881.

World War II

In 1942 - 1943 Tunisia was the scene of the first major operations by the Allied Forces (the British Commonwealth and the United States) against the Nazi lead Axis Powers, during World War II. The main body of the British army, advancing from their victory in Battle of el-Alamein under the command of British Field Marshal Montgomery, pushed into Tunisia from the south. The US and other allies, following their invasions of Algeria and Morocco in Operation Torch, invaded from the west.

General Rommel, commander of the Axis forces in North Africa, had hoped to inflict a similar defeat on the allies in Tunisia as German forces had in the Battle of France in 1940. Before the battle for Tunisia, the inexperienced allied forces had generally been unable to withstand German blitzkriegs and properly coordinate their operations. As such the battle for Tunisia was a major test for the allies. They figured out that in order to defeat Germany they would have to coordinate their actions and quickly recover from the inevitable setbacks the experienced German forces would inflict.

On February 19, 1943, General Rommel launched an attack on the American forces in the Kasserine Pass region of Western Tunisia, hoping to inflict the kind of demoralizing and alliance-shattering defeat the Germans had dealt to Poland and France. The initial results were a disaster for the United States; the area around the Kasserine Pass is the site of many US war graves from that time.

However, the American forces were ultimately able to reverse their retreat. Having learned a critical lesson in tank warfare, the Allies broke through the German Mareth line on March 20, 1943. The allies subsequently linked up on April 8, 1943. Thus, the United States, United Kingdom, Free French, and Polish (as well as other forces) were able to win a major battle as an allied army.

The battle, though often overshadowed by Stalingrad, represented a major allied victory of World War II largely because it forged the Alliance which would one day liberate Western Europe.

Independence

Before colonialism, Tunisia was ruled by a line of Beys until 1881. Up until this point the Beys of Tunisia borrowed money from Europe to finance modernization within Tunisia. When the local population resented tax rises to fund the repayment the country found itself bankrupt. It is at this point that France, Britain and Italy placed the finances of Tunisia in administration via an international agreement.

Initially, Italy was the country that demonstrated the most desire to have Tunisia as a colony having investment, citizens and geographic proximity as motivation. However this was rebuffed when Britain and France co-operated to prevent this during the years 1871 - 1878 ending in Britain supporting French influence in Tunisia in exchange for dominion over Cyprus. France still had the issue of Italian influence and thus decided to find an excuse for a pre-emptive strike. Using the pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria, France marched an army of about 36,000 personnel which quickly advanced to Tunis and forced the Bey to make terms in the form of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id), which gave France control of Tunisian governance and making it a de-facto French protectorate.

Tunisia enjoyed certain benefits from French rule; however, the desire for self-governance remained and in 1910 Ali Bach Hamba and Bechir Sfar created the group of young Tunisians which led to the 1920 group called the “Destour” (constitution) party. Keeping the new movement under control led the French to use a combination of carrot-and-stick tactics that worked well but did not halt the momentum for independence. In 1934, a younger, more fervent element of the Destour party called the Neo-Destour emerged, with Habib Bourguiba, Dr Mahmoud Materi, Tahar Sfar and Bahri Guiga as their leaders. This new party was immediately declared illegal by the French administration.

Habib Bourguiba spent a great deal of time in French prisons. However, this did little to stem his influence or halt the momentum for change. The Second World War played into Bourguiba’s hands as he was moved from Vichy French prisons to Rome, and then to Tunisia as the Axis powers courted his influence in Tunisia. Bourguiba never endorsed these requests. He did manage relocation to Tunisia and two months after this, the Allies claimed Tunisia.

In the following ten years, the struggle for independence continued and gained momentum. Bourguiba was again incarcerated from 1952 - 1954, which in turn caused an outbreak of terrorist attacks by supporters. In 1954, things changed abruptly when Pierre Mendes-France became the leader of the French government and pursued a policy of pulling out from burdensome French colonies, with Tunisia in this category. This resulted in the April 1955 agreement which handed internal autonomy to Tunisian hands while international relations were managed by France, a similar situation to the Turkish Bey method of governance in pre-1881.

The Neo-Detour were now in control, but Bourguiba refused to take the helm until the French relinquished all control over Tunisia. He did not have to wait long, as the terrible Algerian War of Independence changed the French desire for colonialism, leading to the abolition of the Treaty of Bardo and Tunisia gaining full independence in March 20, 1956.

Bourguiba became Prime Minister and, after 1957, the first president of the Republic of Tunisia as the constitutional role of the Bey was abolished.

Geography

Tunisia is a country situated on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Nile Valley. It is bordered by Algeria in the west and Libya in the south-east. An abrupt southern turn of its shoreline gives Tunisia two faces on the Mediterranean.

Despite its relatively small size, Tunisia has great geographical and climactic diversity. The Dorsal, an extension of the Atlas Mountains, traverses Tunisia in a northeasterly direction from the Algerian border in the west to the Cape Bon peninsula. North of the Dorsal is the Tell, a region characterized by low, rolling hills and plains, although in the northwestern corner of Tunisia, the land reaches elevations of 1,050 meters. The Sahil is a plain along Tunisia's eastern Mediterranean coast famous for its olive monoculture. Inland from the Sahil, between the Dorsal and a range of hills south of Gafsa, are the Steppes. Much of the southern region is semi-arid and desert.

Economy

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, petroleum, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs, whilst still heavy, has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth averaged 5.0% in the 1990s, and inflation is slowing. Increased trade and tourism have been key elements in this steady economic growth. Tunisia's association agreement with the European Union (EU), the first such accord between the EU and a Mediterranean country, entered into force on March 1, 1998. Under the agreement Tunisia will gradually remove barriers to trade with the EU over the next decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in government efficiency are among the challenges for the future of Tunisia. According to the British Philip's university atlas of 2000, Tunisia also possesses major phosphate reserves in the middle section of the country.

Tunisia is ranked most competitive economy of Africa in the 2007 edition of the Global Competitiveness Report that is released by the World Economic Forum. It also ranks first in the Arab World and 29th globally.

Demographics

The majority (98%) of modern Tunisians are Arab, and are speakers of Tunisian Arabic. However, there is also a small (1% at most) population of Berbers located in the Jabal Dahar mountains in the South East and on the island of Jerba. The Berbers primarily speak Berber languages, often called Shelha. The other long-established community in the country is Jewish (today mainly in the capital Tunis and on Jerba), much reduced in number since independence from France.

One study indicates that the majority of the genetic material in Tunisia did not arrive with the Arabs (no more than 20% was found to come from the Middle East). Another study, which does not compare Tunisian genetics with those of the Middle East, states that what it calls the Arab subhaplotype Va was found at a relatively high frequency in Tunisia at 50.6%, but also states that this group in fact "probably correspond to a heterogeneous group representing various ethnicities", rather than just Arabs. Yet another finds that "the Tunisian genetic distances to European samples are smaller than those to North African groups" (these groups being from the Moroccan Atlas and the Siwa oasis in Egypt). This suggests a significant European input to Tunisian genetics.

The first people known to history in what is now Tunisia were the Berbers. Numerous civilizations have invaded, migrated to, and been assimilated into the population over the millennia, with significant influxes of population via conquest and settlement from Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and French, to cite some significant sources. Additionally, after the Reconquista and expulsion of non-Christians from Spain, many Spanish Moors and Jews also arrived at the end of the 15th century.

Presently, nearly all Tunisians (98% of the population) are Muslim. In addition to the aforementioned Jewish population there is also a small indigenous Christian population. Small nomadic indigenous minorities have been mostly assimilated into the larger population.

Language

Standard Arabic is Tunisia's official language. However, as is the case in other Arab countries, a vernacular of Arabic is spoken. In Tunisia, the dialect is Tunisian Arabic, which is closely related to Maltese. There is also a small minority of speakers of Shelha, a Berber language.

French also has a major role in the country, despite having no official status. It is used widely in education (for example being the medium of instruction in the sciences in secondary school), the press, and in business, and most educated Tunisians are able to speak it. Many Tunisians mix Tunisian Arabic with French.

Education

Prior to 1958 education in Tunisia was only available to a privileged minority (14% ). It is now given a high priority and accounts for 6% of G.N.P. A basic education for both boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 16 has been compulsory since 1991.

While children generally acquire Tunisian Arabic at home, when they enter school at age 5, they are taught to read and write in Standard Arabic. From the age of 8, they are taught French while English is introduced at the age of 10.

Cities

Tabarka

On Tunisia’s north coast Tabarka nestles between the cork-oak covered Khroumirie Mountains and the Mediterranean. Its natural harbour has drawn sailors since Phoenician times and it is a delightful town to explore. ‘Les Aiguilles’ (The Needles) are jagged rock formations standing in a row to the west of the town and offering an excellent photo opportunity while the 16th century Genoese Castle is accessible by a short causeway.

The town has a marina and fishing port and several small hotels, but the main tourist area is found along the sandy beaches east of the town centre. Some of the best diving in Tunisia is to be had in this area, known as the Coral Coast, and Tabarka’s golf course is scenically spectacular. Tabarka also hosts several international summer music festivals, including the famous International Jazz Festival.

Tunis

The capital of Tunisia is made up of the Medina (its historic heart), the ‘European’ quarter built at the beginning of the 20th century, and the new modern suburbs.

For more than 500 years the Medina has been the historic heart of Tunis and UNESCO has classed as a World Heritage Site its fascinating and exotic maze of streets. The Zitouna Mosque reigns supreme and there are little museums tucked away down interesting alleys. Here too, artisans ply their trade – silversmiths, goldsmiths, hat makers, to name but a few.

Avenue Habib Bourguiba is the main artery running west to east, a bustling wide boulevard with cinemas, restaurants, cafés, and shops, with the main entrance to the Medina at one end and the TGM metro line to Carthage and Sidi Bou Said at the other.

Housed in the north of Tunis and originally a 13th century palace, the Bardo Museum has been extended and restored over the centuries and is an amazing example of 17th and 18th century Arab-Muslim architecture. It houses exhibits from the prehistoric, Punic, Roman, Christian and Muslim eras and, of course, its world class collection of Roman mosaics.

Hammamet & Yasmine Hammamet

Hammamet lies at the southern end of the Cap Bon peninsula and the town spreads along the beautiful beaches of the Gulf of Hammamet, with the new resort of Yasmine Hammamet at the southern end.

In the centre of town the old Medina, with its narrow alleys, is still largely residential but there are plenty of souvenir and handicraft shops, as well as a 15th century Spanish fort offering superb views from its ramparts, and a tiny museum of traditional wedding dresses. Take a mint tea or a coffee at the Sidi bou Hadid café at the foot of the fort and drink in the beauty of Hammamet Bay. Hammamet is home to the International Cultural Centre which in summer brings music and dance from around the world.

Set in the green and peaceful grounds is Sebastien’s Villa, an architectural gem built in the 1920’s by the Romanian architect Georges Sebastian, and much visited and admired. Stroll around the grounds or take a coffee beside the colonnaded pool.

Yasmine Hammamet, the newly created resort at the southern end of the Bay, has a lovely hotel lined esplanade, a magnificent 700 berth marina and a re-created Medina (the Medina Mediterranea) with shops, cafés, restaurants and a casino. Beside it is the Carthageland Theme Park.

Port El Kantaoui

Built in the 1970’s, Port El Kantaoui is known as the Mediterranean’s first ‘garden port’ and is located just a few kilometres north of Sousse. Its architecture is an inspiration from the Arab-Andalusian style and the resort is a homogeneous, verdant complex of hotels, residences, shops and leisure spots, the centre of which is the 340 berth marina complemented by a superb golf course and a lovely central piazza with a musical fountain.

This is a popular resort with hotels stretching along its sandy beaches, plenty of activities and just a short distance from Sousse.

Sousse

Nicknamed “The Pearl of The Sahel”, Sousse is a popular beach resort as well as an historic city. It is a busy and bustling town with a large port. At its heart is the Medina, with its high ramparts evoking the town’s medieval past as a centre for Islam and a stronghold protecting the coast against the Christian invasion.

Within the Medina you will find the 9th century Ribat, built to help defend the coast and the 11th century Great Mosque whose crenulated battlements and large circular corner towers make it look more like a fortress. Indeed, it probably started out as a Kasbah to defend the internal port. The warren of alleyways in the souk makes it a fascinating place to explore and shop.

Monastir

The city of Monastir (From Latin: monastirium) is well located in North Eastern Tunisia, in the Sahel area. (25 km to the south of Sousse). It is still an attractive fishing port and the Medina is at its heart.
The Bourguiba Mosque & Mausoleum -, the 1st President of Independent Tunisia (1950’s), are impressive monuments, among many, recalling the city’s fruitful history. The city features a well preserved Ribat, a type of fortified Muslim monastery dating back to the 18th century.
Most of the hotels are stretching along a fine sand beach to Skanes.
The Flamingo Golf Course is always a delight for advanced players while The Palm Links one offers a pleasant course and a range of facilities for players eager to perfect their game.

Mahdia

Lying less than an hour south of Sousse, Madia is both a modern tourist resort, with some of Tunisia’s most beautiful beaches, and a particularly active fishing harbour. Mahdia was also important historically, originally to the Phoenicians and Romans and later to the Fatimids, and has several monuments recalling its prestigious past.

On the peninsula, the ancient Medina, home to Tunisia’s finest lace weavers, is an ideal place for a relaxing stroll. The Skifa el Kahla is a small fort originally built in the 10th century and rebuilt in the 16th century, now acting as a gateway separating the modern town from the peninsula. The highest terrace offers a magnificent panorama of the whole town, from harbour to coast.

There is an extensive maritime cemetery on the tip of the peninsula with graves laid out so that they all have sea views. The port is home to a large fleet of lamplight fishing trawlers and boats and is very lively in the summer when the night fishing season for sardines starts.

Kairouan

On the central plain of Tunisia is the holy city of Kairouan, Capital of the Muslim Maghreb, and one of the most important places for Muslims. The Medina of Kairouan is home to some impressive monuments. Dominating the Medina is the Great Mosque, known as ‘Jamaa Oqba’, founded in 670 by Oqba Ibn Nafaa. Here you will also find the Sidi Sahib Mausoleum with its magnificent ceramics. The souks are in the heart of the Medina, a fascinating labyrinth of shops including, of course, carpet shops. Kairouan is the main carpet-making centre in Tunisia. The Kasbah, a citadel dating from the 18th century, has now been transformed into a five star hotel.

On the edge of the town centre are The Aghlabid Pools – four of the original fourteen have been restored. These were the city’s waterworks – an amazing feat of Arab engineering to bring water to the town over 1000 years ago.

Sfax

The city, founded in AD 849 on the ruins of the ancient towns Taparura and Thaenae, is the capital of the governorate of Sfax and a thriving, bustling port. It is Tunisia’s second city, after the capital Tunis. It is also home to a sizeable fishing fleet and fish canneries.

Its Medina is still very much part of daily life and a great deal of the economic life of the city is carried out here. Its walls date from the 9th century with the great mosque dating from the 10th century.

Sfax is particularly well served by transport networks – road, rail and air as it has its own airport. There is also a daily ferry to the Kerkennah island of Chergui.

Houmt Souk, Djerba

Houmt Souk is the delightful capital of the lovely island of Djerba, set in the Gulf of Gabes in the south Tunisia. Djerba is believed to be the home of the mythical ‘lotus eaters’ and has a style and character all of its own.

The town is centred around the beautiful and lively markets. There are two, one vaulted souk, and another for foodstuffs. The small and colourful souk ends in a couple of squares that are filled with outdoor cafés. On the seafront is the fort Borju l-Kabir which is well worth the walk down from the town centre. The Romans were the first to build a stronghold here but the original fortress was built in the late 13th century by the Sicilians. It later fell into the hands of the Spanish and then the Ottomans who rebuilt most of it in the early 17th century.

Tozeur

With hundreds of thousands of palm trees, Tozeur, in the South West of Tunisia, is known as the ‘Pearl of the Jerid’ (‘jerid’ meaning the leaf of the palm tree). The town is situated on the edge of the huge Chott El Jerid salt lake and is the commercial centre of the region, as indeed it has been since pre-Roman times. It is famous for its ‘deglet nour’ (‘finger of light’) dates which are its main export.

The old quarter of the town (14th century) is called Ouled el Hadef and here you will find the traditional architecture of the region – high, practically windowless walls built with small yellow/brown handmade bricks, with geometric patterns in relief. It is a fascinating area to wander round, with little gems to discover, like the Museum of Popular Arts and Traditions.

On the edge of the oasis is the Dar Cheraiet complex housing the Dar Cheraiet Hotel, a Museum, an Arabian Nights grotto, a restaurant and a café. The town hosts the annual Festival of the Oasis, held in the winter, which has grown over the years to become an international event of traditional culture, music, dance and poetry.